ABSTRACT Gaultheria pumila (L.f.) D.J. Middleton is a native shrub of Chile that produces edible berry fruits. This species is related to the cultivated Vaccinium species; for this reason it is currently called Chilean blueberry locally. Although G. pumila has important attributes, it has been largely ignored, and remains an unexplored genetic resource. This study investigates the genetic diversity to support the efforts to domesticate the species. Sampling was carried out in 11 sites collected from four Regions of Chile. In total, 160 individuals were collected and analyzed using a set of 10 simple sequence repeats (SSRs) markers. The average observed heterozygosity was Ho = 0.50, while the expected heterozygosity was He = 0.46. The fixation index (FIS) showed an average of -0.07, and the proportion of differentiation among populations (FST) was 0.11. The average level of polymorphic loci in all populations (PPL) was 96.97%. AMOVA showed that the genetic diversity among populations was very low (ΦPT = 6%). Significant correlations were found between genetic and geographic distance. Multivariate and Bayesian analyses identified two genetic groups. These results will be very useful to support the efforts to domesticate and increase the value of this species.

Abstract: The first translation of the Koran in the West was undertaken in the 11th century. At the bequest of Peter the Venerable, the task was given to Robert de Ketton. And it was following this major event that an intense anti-Muslim controversy was generated that would reach its peaks between the 12th and 13th centuries. Moving forward to the 16th century, the religious reformer Martin Luther used these translations to develop one in which the purpose was to combat the Ottoman enemy with their own dogmatic foundations. In the end, the struggle against the infidel was not only to involve a physical effort, but also a spiritual one.

Resumen: El Corán fue un texto cuya traducción en Occidente recién se desarrolló hacia el siglo XI. Bajo los auspicios de Pedro el Venerable, este lo encargó a Robert de Ketton. Es a partir de este hito que se genera una intensa polémica antimusulmana que tendrá sus picos más importantes entre los siglos XII y XIII. Hacia el siglo XVI, el reformador Martín Lutero tomará como base estas traducciones para desarrollar una, cuya finalidad es el combate del enemigo turco a partir de sus propias bases dogmáticas. En el fondo, el combate al infiel no debía ser solo un esfuerzo físico, sino también espiritual.

Abstract Background: Polymorphic microsatellite markers were developed for Gaultheria pumila (Ericaceae) to evaluate genetic diversity and population structure within its native range in Chile. This is a very important Ericaceae endemic to Chile with a large commercial potential. Its resistance to different abiotic conditions makes it a valuable target for genetic improvement. Results: Ten polymorphic simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci were isolated from Gaultheria pumila using new-generation 454 FLX Titanium pyrosequencing technology. The mean number of alleles per locus ranged from 2 to 4. Observed and expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.00 to 1.0 and 0.00 to 0.64, respectively. Conclusions: From 10 SSR markers developed for G. pumila, 9 markers are promising candidates for analyzing genetic variation within or between natural populations of G. pumila and other species from the same genus.

Abstract Background: Vegetative propagation of Fragaria sp. is traditionally carried out using stolons. This system of propagation, in addition to being slow, can spread plant diseases, particularly serious being viral. In vitro culture of meristems and the establishment of micropropagation protocols are important tools for solving these problems. In recent years, considerable effort has been made to develop in vitro propagation of the commercial strawberry in order to produce virus-free plants of high quality. These previous results can serve as the basis for developing in vitro-based propagation technologies in the less studied species Fragaria chiloensis. Results: In this context, we studied the cultivation of meristems and establishment of a micropropagation protocol for F. chiloensis. The addition of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) improved the meristem regeneration efficiency of F. chiloensis accessions. Similarly, the use of 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) in the culture media increased the average rate of multiplication to 3-6 shoots per plant. In addition, the use of 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP), had low levels (near zero) of explant losses due to oxidation. However, plant height as well as number of leaves and roots were higher in media without growth regulators, with average values of 0.5 cm, 9 leaves and 4 roots per plant. Conclusions: For the first time in Chilean strawberry, meristem culture demonstrated to be an efficient tool for eliminating virus from infected plants, giving the possibility to produce disease free propagation material. Also, the addition of PVP into the basal MS medium improved the efficiency of plant recovery from isolated meristems. Farmers can now access to high quality plant material produced by biotech tools which will improve their technological practices.

BACKGROUND: For the first time, a morphometric characterization of chaura (Gaultheria pumila) fruits has been conducted between natural populations growing in the Villarrica National Park, Araucania Region, Chile. Chaura is a native Ericaceae from Chile that produces aromatic and tasty fruits which could be of agricultural interest. RESULTS: To influence the decision for a further domestication of G. pumila, both the fruit sizes (indicator of productivity) and the nutritional properties of the fruits have been determined from different subpopulations. Samples were a total of 74 plants and 15 fruits per plant which were randomly harvested following its natural distribution around the Villarrica volcano. Altogether, fresh weight, shape, color, diameter in the pole and the equatorial dimensions were determined as phenotypic traits of the G. pumila fruits. Meanwhile the total soluble solids, anthocyanin and pectin contents were calculated as nutritional traits of the Chaura fruits. Results showed a high phenotypic diversity between the sampled population with three main fruit shapes and three predominant colors. The round shapes were the most abundant, whereas a significant correlation was found among fruit size with weight and color. The highest fresh weight (597.3 mg), pole diameter (7.1 mm) and equatorial diameter (6.5 mm) were estimated in the pink color fruits. CONCLUSIONS: The total amount of anthocyanin was higher in red fruits, while the maximum pectin content was obtained in the round white fruits. Overall results must pave the way for a further domestication and introduction of the Chaura species in the agro-productive system in Chile.

A lysis buffer-based protocol (Protocol BA), a modified lysis buffer-based protocol (Protocol BA Mod) and a commercial extraction kit (Protocol PS Kit) (Power Soil, Mo bio Laboratories, CA USA) were each evaluated for their ability to produce high-quality DNA with yields sufficient to allow its use in biodiversity studies. Similarly, the effect of liquid nitrogen on the process of cell disruption in all of the protocols that were studied. DNA yields ranged from 12.4 ng g-1 of processed soil to 9620 ng g-1 using the modified lysis buffer and commercial extraction kit, respectively. The quality of the DNA was determined by the ability of the DNA to produce efficient and reproducible polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products, using primers for universal 16S and 18S ribosomal RNA regions from bacteria and fungi, respectively. High-quality DNA was obtained to run PCRs in all protocols, but the efficiency of the method depended on the dilution of the DNA prior to performing the PCR. The three extraction methods generated PCR products with 90% efficiency. The DNA produced with the commercial kit was able to produce the highest PCR efficiency (95%) when the 10-1 dilution was used. The method based on the use of lysis buffer produced the highest efficiency (90%) using a 10-2 dilution. Meanwhile, the modified lysis buffer-based protocol generated the highest efficiency of PCR products using the 10-3 dilution factor with 95% of efficiency. For the first time, reliable and efficient DNA isolation from the rhizosphere of hydrolic forest is documented, enabling a wide range of applications for this technique.

Se evaluó el uso de Buffer de lisis (Protocolo BA), Buffer de lisis modificado (Protocolo BA Mod) y el uso de kit comercial de extracción (Protocolo PS Kit) (Power Soil, Mo bio Laboratories, CA USA) y su efectividad para producir ADN de calidad biológica con rendimientos que permitan su uso en estudios de biodiversidad. De igual forma, se evaluó el efecto del nitrógeno líquido en el proceso de ruptura celular en todos los protocolos estudiados. Se obtuvieron rendimientos de ADN desde 12,4 hasta 9620 ng g-1 de suelo procesado utilizando los métodos basados en el buffer de lisis modificado y kit de extracción comercial. La calidad biológica del ADN se determinó mediante la habilidad del ADN para producir eficientes y reproducibles Reacciones en Cadena de la Polimerasa utilizando partidores del ADN ribosomal 16 S y 18 S de bacterias y hongos, respectivamente. Se obtuvo ADN de calidad biológica para PCR en todos los protocolos, pero la eficiencia del método dependió de la dilución del ADN previo al desarrollo de las PCRs. Los tres métodos de extracción generaron productos de PCR por encima del 90% de las muestras analizadas. Se observó que el factor de dilución del ADN afecta la eficiencia de la técnica de PCR en los tres protocolos evaluados pues para la extracción con Kit comercial, la mayor eficiencia en el PCR se obtuvo cuando la dilución 10-1 fue utilizada. El método basado en el buffer de lisis produjo la mayor eficiencia (90%) utilizando la dilución 10-2. Por otro lado, el protocolo buffer de lisis modificado generó la más alta eficiencia utilizando la dilución 10-3 con un 95% de eficiencia. Los métodos evaluados permiten, por primera vez, la obtención eficiente y confiable de ADN de alta calidad a partir la rizósfera del bosque hidrófilo chileno.

Truffle (Tuber melanosporum Vitt.) culture is an agroforestry sector in Chile of increasing interest due to the high prices that truffles fetch in the national market and the recent evidence that its commercial production is possible in Chilean climatic and soil conditions. In this study, the efficiency of three methods of DNA extraction from a mix of 5 g of soil and roots from both nursery and field plants of Quercus ilex L. mycorrhized with T. melanosporum were evaluated, and a simple and reproducible protocol was established. Detection of T. melanosporum was performed by the technique of cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence (CAPS) from amplicons generated with the primers ADL1 (5’-GTAACGATAAAGGCCATCTATAGG-3’) and ADL3 (5’-CGTTTTTCCTGAACTCTTCATCAC-3’), where a restriction fragment of 160 bp specific for T. melanosporum was generated, which allows the discrimination of this species from the rest of the species belonging to the Tuber sp. genus. Direct detection of T. melanosporum in one step was also obtained by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from total DNA isolated from mycorrhized roots and with the primers ITSML (5’-TGGCCATGTGTCAGATTTAGTA-3’) and ITSLNG (5’-TGATATGCTTAAGTTCAGCGGG-3’), generating a single amplicon of 440 bp. The molecular detection of T. melanosporum by the methods presented here will allow the rapid and accurate detection of mycorrhization of trees, both under nursery and field conditions. This technology will also provide more security to farmers by controlling the quality of the mycorrhized trees they will plant and also by following the mycorrhization status of established orchards.

Cedrela odorata L. is one of the most important timber species currently traded in the Caribbean and Central America; however, it has been intensively exploited. In vitro techniques and clonal propagation can help to develop new plantations and assist in establishing improvement programs for this species. The aim of this study was to develop a protocol to establish in vitro conditions and to micropropagate this species from nodal explants from juvenile cuttings taken from field trees. Disinfection of node explants with 5% propiconazole CE 25 during 3 min resulted in 100% explant disinfection and 60% morphogenic response on those established explants. Shoot development was optimized by cultivating in vitro node explants in Murashige and Skoog basal medium supplemented with 2 mg L-1 6-bencilaminopurine and 3 mg L-1 naphthaleneacetic acid. This medium resulted in 100% shoot development from the in vitro node explants with a 3.93 cm mean height. Rooting was also stimulated 6 wk after individualization of the regenerated plants on the same micropropagation medium with a mean of 3.9 roots per plant. In vitro plants did not show morphologic differences when compared to ex vitro seeds.

El cedro (Cedrela odorata L.) es una de las especies más importantes para el sector agroforestal caribeño y centroamericano pero se encuentra bajo una presión intensa de explotación debido a su alta demanda. Las técnicas de cultivo in vitro y propagación clonal pueden contribuir a atenuar este inconveniente y dotar a los productores con plantas de alta calidad genética y de ciclos biológicos y productivos más reducidos. El objetivo de este trabajo fue desarrollar un protocolo de establecimiento in vitro y micropropagar la especie a partir de segmentos nodales de estacas juveniles obtenidas de plantas de campo. El estudio de ocho métodos de desinfección dejó establecido que lavados de los segmentos nodales con propiconazol CE 25 al 5% durante 3 min posibilita un 100% de desinfección de los segmentos nodales y un 60% de brotación de las yemas. La adición de 2 mg L-1 de 6-bencilaminopurina y 3 mg L-1 de ácido naftalenacético al medio basal Murashige y Skoog propició una brotación del 100% de los segmentos nodales in vitro y una altura promedio de 3,93 cm a las 8 semanas. La misma concentración de reguladores del crecimiento propició la formación de 3,9 raíces por planta a las 6 semanas de individualizada. Las plantas adaptadas ex vitro no presentaron diferencias morfológicas con las plantas germinadas a partir de semillas.

In the last two decades plant biotechnology applications have been widely developed and incorporated into the agricultural systems of many countries worldwide. Tissue culture tools have been a key factor to support such outcomes. Current results have allowed plant biotechnology and its products -including transgenic plants with several traits- to be the most assimilated technology for farmers and companies, representing several benefits such as: 125 millions ha of transgenic crops in 2008, the reduction of pesticides application by up to 9% in the last ten years, transgenic plants with a better nutritional quality, mass propagation of selected and healthy plants, and the production of proteins for industrial or therapeutic use. The rapid and extensive assimilation for this technology has improved the competences of the agricultural systems both in industrial and in developing countries, based on the proper application of research programs. Several theoretical and practical aspects supporting plant tissue culture applications, as well as the main results and current status of the technology are discussed in this review. The reader will find key elements to evaluate the potential of plant tissue culture tools for the development of agriculture, livestock, human health and nutrition, and human well being in general.

La aplicación de la biotecnología vegetal en la agricultura mundial ha experimentado un avance importante en los últimos veinte años y las técnicas de cultivo de tejidos vegetales han sido un soporte fundamental para estos avances. Los resultados actuales han propiciado que la biotecnología vegetal y sus productos -incluido el uso de las plantas transgénicas- sea la tecnología de más rápida asimilación por los agricultores y que los beneficios se hayan materializado en 125 millones de hectareas de cultivos transgénicos cultivados en 2008, la reducción en un 9% de la aplicación de pesticidas en los últimos diez años, la creación de plantas transgénicas con mejor calidad nutritiva, la propagación masiva de plantas y genotipos élites y la producción de proteínas de interés farmacéutico e industrial en células vegetales. La rápida asimilación de técnicas biotecnológicas ha mejorado la competitividad tanto de países industrializados como de países en desarrollo, gracias a la correcta aplicación de programas gubernamentales, regulaciones y el estímulo a la investigación. En este trabajo de revision se abordan aspectos teórico-prácticos que sustentan el desarrollo de las técnicas de cultivo de tejidos, así como los principales resultados y avances en este campo para que el lector cuente con elementos que le permitan evaluar la potencialidad de estas tecnologías en el desarrollo agropecuario, la industria farmacéutica y la mejora de la calidad de vida de la población.

This paper provides an overview of nickel and cobalt concentrations found in the north of Chile especially as it relates to exposure of heavy metals to humans and animals through food; to help creating a database for estimating the Ni and Co content in the native farmer´s diet of South America¹). The information include levels of nickel and cobalt measured in a number of different types of vegetables (potato, broad bean, onion and alfalfa) exposed to a natural environmental contamination (especially in relation to volcanic activity and mineral composition of the soil). The simultaneous determination of Ni and Co at pH 9 after adsorptive accumulation of the respective complex with dimethylglyoxime (DMG) at the mercury drop electrode is made by adsorption differential pulse voltammetry (ADPV). The values, expressed in fresh weight, varied from 9-160 µg Kg-1 for Ni and from 1-127 µg Kg-1 for Co. At the present time, there are no established legal standards for nickel and cobalt in any vegetables in Chile

Esta publicación provee una visión general sobre las concentraciones de níquel y cobalto encontradas en el Norte de Chile, especialmente aquéllas relacionadas con la exposición de metales pesados en humanos y animales a través de la alimentación, con el fin de crear una base de datos para poder estimar el contenido de Ni y Co en la dieta alimentaria de la población rural de Sudamérica¹). La información incluye niveles de níquel y cobalto medidos en diferentes tipos de vegetales (papas, habas, cebollas y alfalfa) expuestas a la contaminación ambiental natural (especialmente en relación a una gran actividad volcánica y composición mineral del suelo). La determinación simultánea de Ni y Co se realizó mediante voltamperometría diferencial de pulso adsorptiva (ADPV) a pH 9 tras acumulación en el electrodo del respectivo complejo con dimetilglioxima (DMG). Los valores obtenidos expresados en peso fresco fluctuaron entre 9-160 µg Kg-1 para Ni y, entre 1-127 µg Kg-1 para Co. En la actualidad, en Chile no existen estándares legales establecidos para níquel y cobalto en vegetales